Furniture is one part of the material culture of a society. The diversity of furniture reflects the way people lived and how styles and tastes changed with time. Most authorities on Chinese furniture agree that the widespread adoption of the chair as the preferred manner of seating by about the 12th century represented a watershed for Chinese society. The subsequent changes to the way all types of residences were organised led to a proliferation of furniture types and styles. It would be almost impossible to exhaustively cover all furniture. However, the following provides a brief introduction to a number of the major categories.

All items are from the Humble House collection. Click on the thumbnail for a larger image.

Cabinets and Chests

The earliest forms of storage were small boxes and over the centuries these evolved to larger chests. The basic form of the chest probably continued until the advent of the chair level of living when the raised lifestyle saw the introduction of cabinets and allowed for different ways to store articles.

Because of their usefulness, boxes of different sizes were used throughout history. Larger chests were made to hold linen, quilts and clothing. Timber such as camphorwood was a favoured material because it repelled insects but elm and fruit tree timbers were also widely used. Many of the larger chests have a built-in base to protect the contents from damp. Often these chests have carvings or paintings or a combination of the two.

It was during the Ming dynasty (1368A.D. - 1644A.D.) that furniture making reached its peak in terms of design.

The tapered linen cabinet is one of the most representative pieces of that era and remained popular through to modern times. The top to bottom taper of the frame members is subtle and gives a sense of the cabinet reaching to the sky. Many consider that the best pieces are those with full length doors as the eye takes in the long lines of the piece. Undecorated, they represent the simplicity that has come to be recognised as the best of Ming furniture.

Much of early period furniture was lacquered. In fact it is thought that it was not until the mid to late Ming dynasty when hardwoods with fine grain were imported was furniture left unlacquered. Aesthetically pleasing, the lacquering process also helped to preserve the furniture. One process was to lay linen on the furniture and then coat this with a mixture of very fine clay with natural adhesive. Once dry the surface was then lacquered with several coats. Colloquially known as 'pi hui' which means coated clay, the result was a very hard surface that provided excellent protection for the furniture and helped to ensure its survival over the centuries. Another method was to lacquer the timber surface directly, the most favoured colours being traditional black and red. The plum red colours seen on 19th and 20th century furniture indicate the popularity of these tonings.

The lacquer also provided an excellent surface for painting. The scenes varied widely including landscapes and figures. Others were decorated with plants, animals and other objects. The painting was not just decorative but highly symbolic. The motifs represented wishes that included a long, prosperous life filled with success and children. For this reason lacquered and painted furniture was often presented as a wedding gift.

Another popular form of storage were the so-called kitchen cabinets which came in a number of different styles.

The most easily recognised are those with lattice doors which were designed to facilitate air circulation. Cooked food could be placed in the cabinet and the steam could escape through the doors. Most of these cabinets also had bottom lattice shelves to store kitchen utensils.

Some kitchen cabinets are more ornate. The doors have open or relief carving of people, flowers and other auspicious motifs. The upper doors often have a panel on the inside that can be raised or lowered to either prevent or allow air to circulate.

Another variation, and one that can be seen on this piece, is that some are two section cabinets. This means that the top section can be placed on the ground or on a table or other cabinet.

Long cabinets, often called by the western term of sideboard, were more often used as altars in the traditonal family home to hold the ancestral shrine or tablet or as a place of observance for other deities. The cabinet would not be restricted to this purpose however and would have been used to store other household or personal items.

Chinese medicine dates back thousands of years when natural products were used to treat illness. During the Tang dynasty (618A.D. - 906A.D.) around 700 plants were used to treat illness. By the Ming dynasty this had risen to about 2000 and doctors today use nearly 6000 herbs to treat a wide range of disorders.

The herb cabinet was designed to store therapeutic medicines. The cabinets were made from timbers that would not react with the herbs they contained. Therefore herb cabinets were never made from timbers such as camphorwood as it was known it would cause a harmful reaction with other plants. Each drawer has a number of compartments which both maximises storage and keeps the herbs separate from each other to prevent reactions between the plants.

Chairs

China was the only east Asian country to adopt the chair as the major form of seating until modern times. The seat came to China from other countries about two thousand years ago and over the following thousand years was adopted and adapted.

The best known chair is called "guanmaoyi" or the Official's hat chair, so named because the crest rail resembles the hat tails of Song dynasty officials. This is more apparent in chairs where the crest rail extends beyond the rear supporting rails.

Official hat chairs vary slightly in size. Some are tall and grand in appearance and were more likely to be found in the main hall where the senior members of the house sat to receive guests. The slightly smaller chairs were placed around the house and used by family and friends.

The official's hat chair which has the crest rail and arms extending past the supporting posts is also called "sichutou" meaning chair with four protruding ends. They are also called yokeback armchairs.

Historical records indicate that this design pre-dates other Official hat armchairs.

On formal occasions official hat chairs were draped with narrow silk runners while the person seated would wear their best robes to give the best impression of their wealth and status.

The horseshoe back arm chair derives its name from the circular shape of the arms. In the Song dynasty the horseshoe back armchair was called "kaolaoyang", the kaolao being a a large round basket made from willow or split bamboo. In the Ming dynasty they were called "quanyi" meaning circular or round chairs. Today the chair is called horseshoe back or circular armchair.

The most striking feature of the chair is the U-shaped crest rail that also forms the arms. Usually it is made of several sections secured by a tapered peg joint.

The chair was favoured by scholars and officials, especially in the warmer months as the chair arms naturally raised their own limbs away from the body allowing the flow of air. They are especially comfortable for those contemplative moods.

The side chair is similar to the official hat chair except that it has no arms. This design made them popular at banquets and being light in weight meant they could be easily moved around the house. The yoke-shaped crest rail has led to some calling them "yokeback" chairs. Others see the crest rail extending beyond the support and call them "hanging lantern" chairs. The majority of these chairs are very simple in design and have little decoration.

The curved back splat makes them especially comfortable.

Low back arm chairs are more familiarly called "meiguiyi" meaning rose chair although the reason for this name has been lost. The chair is also called "wenyi" meaning writing chair and in the 1930's the chair was called "meirenyi" or beauty's chair suggesting it was mainly used by women.

The earliest record of this type of chair dates to the Song dynasty. Smaller than other chairs, they have a straight low back and straight arms. This design meant they were good as sedan chairs especially when they were made from bamboo. In fact it is thought that until the Ming dynasty these chairs were only made from bamboo.

Stools and benches

Stools have been known to the Chinese for over two thousand years. However, the derivation of the character "deng" for stool also means to ascend suggesting the stool may well have been used as a step on to the bed more than as a seat. Stools are very diverse in design and size and were widely used as the informal seat.

The classic stool design is square with humpback stretchers and inward horsehoof feet. The stretcher is said to resemble a bridge. Stools are often used as side tables having the additional benefit of providing extra seating when needed.

Benches appear to have developed later than chairs, becoming popular during the Song dynasty. They are the ideal accompaniment to the dining table as they allow more people to enjoy a meal. While the chair is for the individual the bench is for the family as it naturally draws people together. The size of the bench depended on how and where it was to be used. Most were designed to seat two people while others could comfortably seat seven or more. The classic bench is the Ming style bench with inward tapered legs.

Tables

During the early periods of Chinese history when people lived at the mat low tables were used for day to day needs. The move to the chair dramatically changed the way people lived.

One such change related to dining. At home or in a restaurant people gathered for meals around a central table. The most popular were called "Eight Immortal" tables, a reference to the group of figures representing a wish for long life as well as indicating that eight people could be comfortably seated. In addition to dining the table was used for preparing meals, serving refreshments and playing games. The table is the centre of attention for family and friends to enjoy each other's company.

The perfect companion to the dining table is the "jiu zhuo" or wine table. Placed to the side it held wine and food that could be brought to the diners as requested. Curiously, the Chinese did not employ large rectangular dining tables for serving groups as occurred in other cultures. Paintings of Chinese banquet scenes generally show the small wine table being used for individual diners who would be served by personal servants.

It has been suggested that the shift to the chair raised the height of windows. This in turn resulted in more wall space and areas to place furniture such as cabinets and tables. The semi-round or half moon table was created for this space. This type of table was primarily a display table. Another style was to have two half moon tables that could come together to form a circle to be used as either a central display table or meeting place.

In Chinese society a person's status was identified by their position in the room. The family heads sat in the most central position while to their front and sides were lines for other family members. Between the chairs of the heads of the family stood a large ceremonial table. While slightly smaller than a dining table it had large aprons and was carved on all four sides with auspicious symbols.

The long narrow table with everted ends is a quintessential piece of Chinese furniture. Its origins can be traced back over 2500 years when they were used for religious purposes. The table continued to be used to hold ancestral tablets or figures of other deities. Another major role was to display art and calligraphy or hold porcelain, jade and stone.

Those without the turned up ends were often used to hold the long musical instrument called a "qin". The qin is an ancient long seven stringed instrument. It is the most respected musical instrument and is one of the Four Arts scholars were expected to study. The others are qi (better known in the West by the Japanese name of Go), calligraphy and painting.

Large rectangular tables are known as painting tables. These were an essential item in the scholar's studio who used it to practise art and calligraphy. As such they were often a quite refined piece of furniture reflecting the taste of the studio's occupant. Painting tables are usually taller than dining tables and have clear leg room so that the person could move freely around the table and work comfortably while standing up.

Tables with drawers were also extensively used in the home where they could serve as altars, display tables or bedroom furniture. The deep long drawers were ideal for storage.

Many. like this piece were richly carved with auspicious designs wishing for a long and prosperous life. The quality of the carving showed the deep held passion for a fruitful life as well as the attachment towards motifs representing these ambitions.

Kang furniture

Low furniture has the generic term of kang furniture. The kang is a feature of many homes, particularly in northern China. It is a platform at about knee height made from brick or timber. It is hollow underneath and can be heated by burning fuel directly underneath it or, in the case of timber kangs, by running a flue from a nearby stove. Bedding is placed on it and during winter all household activities are conducted including eating, sleeping and socialising. Kangs therefore are often quite large to accommodate several people. The furniture is low because people are on the kang, not on higher seats. In the warmer months pieces such as small tables could be used on day beds.

In terms of style and design some kang furniture reflects larger traditional furniture. This shows the level of appreciation people had for the furniture as well as the skill of the cabinetmakers to produce miniature versions of other standard furniture.

Kang cabinets came in a variety of sizes and combinations of doors and drawers. The flat surfaces were ideal for placing folded quilts during the day. Some have secret storage accessed by pulling out the drawer to reveal a hidden space. Others have a lockable compartment. These sturdy pieces would have been placed on the floor during warmer months.

The kang table was an indispensable part of the household. They were used not just on the kang but on other beds as well. Small and portable, the table was used for many activities including serving tea, writing, playing board games. Larger ones were used when more than one or two people were gathered. The designs varied so they might have drawers for storing smaller items.

Beds

In Chinese society the bed is one of the most important pieces of furniture. Used at night for sleeping, the bed is the equivalent of the couch in western society. During the day the bed was where people sat or reclined. Smaller beds could be taken outside where friends and family could relax to enjoy fine weather. Beds were a measure of family wealth and were proudly displayed.

The simplest form of bed is a flat platform on legs called a "ta" or day bed. They were used for a short nap during the day as well as a place to enjoy the company of others. As mentioned above this type of bed could be easily taken outside. This convenient portability perhaps explains why the majority of them are quite simple in design as more ornate pieces can be more fragile.

The three sided bed is called "luohan chuang" or monk's bed. This type of bed has strong associations with the scholar's studio as a place to sleep, recline or sit with books and scrolls. The three sides distinguish it from other bed types and it is this design that allows it to function as a couch during the day and a bed at night. The sides can be a simple railing or solid panels on which motifs are carved.

The canopy bed is in effect a house within a house. Its four sides means that it can be covered with curtains to give the occupants total privacy. While these beds were used for sitting and conversation, their main purpose is a private place for husband and wife to make love with the aim of producing children, especially sons, to carry on the family name. Because of this, the canopy bed was often presented as a wedding gift and most of these beds are ornate with motifs symbolising the wish for happiness and many children.

Screens and panels

Screens were the first form of room divider in the home when houses were large open spaces with few if any internal walls. The screen gives privacy and adds shape to a room. The screen could be a single panel that stood in a base or rise in number to over a dozen pieces. The height varied depending on the part of the house they were to be placed. Taller screens were placed in the main hall while smaller screens were used in upstairs living areas.

Another form of screening was the use of internal partition doors. Some walls of the house were not solid but consisted of a series of wooden partitions that could be individually removed. The purpose of this type of removable wall, often called soft doors, was that they could be taken down to take advantage of breezes on a hot humid day and cool the room down. They also made for extra entrances in the instance of a large number of guests being entertained. They are identified by being made from heavier stronger timber than internal screens and the bottom half is often solid timber that may have relief carving compared the lattice or open carving on screens.

Chinese buildings did not use pane glass windows. Instead they used wooden panels which were covered with rice paper or fabric to keep drafts out. This covering would be replaced from time to time. The heavy and more sturdy panels, usually simple lattice constructions, were placed on external walls. Internal walls were protected from the weather and so panels on these walls could be finer and more decorative.